Theories of Race

Texts and Image Sources

Texts

1. François Bernier, “A New Division of the Earth by the Different Species or Races Which Inhabit It.” This text is a postscript to Bernier’s “New Year’s Gift to Madame de la Sablière,” published anonymously in the Journal des Scavans as “Nouvelle Division de la Terre, par les differentes Especes ou Races d’hommes qui l'habitent, envoyée par un fameux Voyageur a M. l'Abbé de la ***** á peu prés en ces terms” (24 April 1684, 148-55). The translation used here is by Janet L. Nelson, History Workshop Journal (Spring 2001), 247-50. At: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4289731.

2. Voltaire, “The Negro,” in Short Studies in English and American Subjects, in The Works of Voltaire: A Contemporary Version, with Notes by Tobias Smollett, trans. William F. Fleming, vol. 39 of 42 (Paris: E. R. Du Mont, 1901), 240-42. At: https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Works_of_Voltaire_Short_studies_in_E/tmwGAQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=voltaire+%22Short+Studies+in+English+and+American+Subjects%22&printsec=frontcover

—, “Seventh Letter from Amabed,” in Letters from Amabed, translated by the Abbé Tamponnet, in volume 2 of 3, Voltaire: The Whole Prose Romances of Franćois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire, trans. William Walton (London: The Walpole Press, 1900), 1-66, 40-41. At: https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Whole_Prose_Romances_of_Fran%C3%A7ois_Ma/GlY6AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=amabed

3. John Mitchell, “An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People in Different Climates; by John Mitchell, M. D. Communicated to the Royal Society by Mr. Peter Collinson, F. R. S.” Philosophical Transactions, vol. 43 (1744), 102–150. At: https://www.jstor.org/stable/104437?seq=1

4. Charles-Louis Secondat, Baron de la Brède et Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, from The Complete Works of M. de Montesquieu (London: T. Evans, 1777), 4 vols., vol. 1. https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/montesquieu-complete-works-vol-1-the-spirit-of-laws#lf0171-01_label_1087

5. Georges-Louis LeClerc, Comte de Buffon, “Of the Varieties of the Human Species,” in The Natural History of Man, vol. 3 of Natural History, General and Particular (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1780; orig. pub., 1749), 57-207. From Eighteenth-Century Collections Online: https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/ecco/004880992.0001.003?rgn=main;view=fulltext

—, “The Natural History of the Ass,” in The Natural History of Man, vol. 3 of Natural History, General and Particular (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1780; orig. pub., 1749), 398-422.

6. David Hume, “Of National Characters,” Essay XXI, in Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987; orig. pub. 1748, rev. version 1777), 198-216. At: https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/hume-essays-moral-political-literary-lf-ed#lf0059_label_511

—, “Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations,” Essay XI, in Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. Eugene F. Miller, (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987; orig. pub 1752, rev. version 1777), 377-464. At: https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/hume-essays-moral-political-literary-lf-ed#lf0059_label_511.

7. Carl von Linné (Linnaeus), A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, vol. 1, trans. William Turton (London: Lackington, Allen and Co., 1802). At: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/83209#page/7/mode/1up.

8. Immanuel Kant, “On national characters in so far as they rest upon the different feeling of the sublime and the beautiful” (1764) from Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, ed., Patrick Frierson and Paul Guyer; trans. Paul Guyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 50-62. At: https://tcnjpainting.files.wordpress.com/2016/07/kantobservationsonthefeelingofthebeautifulandsublimeandotherwritingscambridge.pdf

—, “Of the Different Human Races” (1777), trans. Jon M. Mikkelson, Kant and the Concept of Race: Late Eighteenth Century Writing (Albany: SUNY Press, 2013), 55-72.

9. Petrus Camper, “On the Origin and Color of Blacks” (1772), trans. Miriam Claude Meijer, “Footnotes to the History of Anthropology: Petrus Camper on the Origin and Color of Blacks,” History of Anthropology Newsletter, 24 (1997) 2, Article 3, 4-9. At: https://repository.upenn.edu/han/vol24/iss2/3

Illustrations from Petrus Camper, “Dissertation sur les variétés naturelle qui characterisent la physionomie des hommes des divers climats et des différens âges” (Dissertation on the natural varieties that characterize the physiognomy of men of diverse climates and of different ages) (Paris: H. Jansen, 1791). At: https://www.meisterdrucke.uk/fine-art-prints/Petrus-Camper/272239/Transition-from-the-monkey-to-Apollo,-illustration-from-'Dissertation-on-the-natural-varieties-which-characterize-the-physiognomy',-by-H.-Jansen,-Paris,-published-1791.html

and:

https://www.meisterdrucke.uk/fine-art-prints/Petrus-Camper/157181/Transition-from-the-monkey-to-Apollo,-illustration-from-'Dissertation-on-the-natural-varieties-that-characterize-physiognomy',-by-H.-Jansen,-Paris,-published-1791.html.

10. Lord Kames, Sketches of the History of Man Considerably Enlarged by the Last Additions and Corrections of the Author, ed. James A. Harris (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2007), 3 vols. (orig. pub. as four vols., 1774-75). From the posthumous edition (London: A. Strahan and T. Cadell; and Edinburgh: William Creech, 1788).

—, “Preliminary Discourse concerning the Origin of Men and of Languages,” Progress of Men Independent of Society, vol. 1 of Sketches of the History of Man, pp. 13-85. At: https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/harris-sketches-of-the-history-of-man-vol-1.

—, “Origin and Progress of American Nations,” from Progress of Men in Society, vol. II of Sketches of the History of Man. At: https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/harris-sketches-of-the-history-of-man-vol-2.

11. Oliver Goldsmith, “Of the Varieties in the Human Race,” in A History of the Earth and Animated Nature, vol. 2 of 6 (London: Wingrave and Collingwood, 1816), 70-93. At: https://books.google.co.mz/books?id=ZSMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA70&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=tincture%20of%20his%20skin&f=false

12. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica or, General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island, 3 vols, (London: T. Lowndes, 1774). At: https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/downloads/neu:m0410b06w?datastream_id=content

13. John Hunter, “An Inaugural Disputation on the Varieties of Man” (1775) in The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, trans. Thomas Bendyshe (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865), 359-94. At: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107931#page/405/mode/1up.

14. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, Library of Congress: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/gdc/lhbcb/04902/04902.pdf

15. Soames Jenyns, “On the Chain of Universal Being,” Disquisitions on Several Subjects (London: J. Dodsley, 1782), 1-11. At: https://archive.org/details/disquisitionsons00jenyiala/page/n9/mode/2up

16. Johann Gottfried von Herder, Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man (1784-91) trans. T. Churchill (New York: Bergman Publishers, 1966; orig. pub. 1800). Book VII, section 1, “Notwithstanding the Varieties of the human Form, there is but one and the same Species of Man throughout the Whole of our Earth,” 163-66; and Book VII, chapter 2, “The one Species of Man has naturalized itself in every Climate upon Earth,” 167-72. At: https://archive.org/details/outlinesaphilos00churgoog/page/166/mode/2up?q=of+the+American

17. John Pinkerton, A Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths, Being an Introduction to the Ancient and Modern History of Europe (1787). (Franklin Classics Trade Press, 2018).

18. Samuel Stanhope Smith, An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species (1787; revised, 1810), ed., Winthrop D. Jordan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 7-150.

—, “Remarks on Certain Strictures Made on the First Edition of this Essay, by Mr. Charles White,” 151-86.

19. Christoph Meiners, “Of the Varieties and Deviate Forms of Negroes,” [“Uber die Natur der Afrikanischen Neger und die davon abhangende Befreyung, oder Einschränkung der Schwarzen”], Gòttingisches historisches Magazin (1790) 6: 385-456, 386-87; trans. Jon M. Mikkelsen, in Kant and the Concept of Race: Late Eighteenth-Century Writings, ed., Jon M. Mikkelsen (Albany, SUNY Press, 2013), 198-208.

20. Sir William Jones, “Discourse the Ninth, ‘The Origin and Families of Nations’” (1792) from The Works of Sir William Jones (London: John Shore, 1807), vol. 9, 185-204. At: http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/jones/Jones_Discourse_9.html

21. Benjamin Rush, “Observations intended to favour a supposition that the Black Color (as it is called) of the Negroes is derived from the LEPROSY,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 4 (1799): 289-97. At: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005108?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents

22. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, from On the Natural Variety of Mankind, trans. and ed., Thomas Bendyshe, ed., The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865; orig. pub., 1775; third edition, 1795), 145-276. At: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107931#page/19/mode/1up

23. Charles White, “An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man” (London: C. Dilly, 1799; written 1795) https://iiif.wellcomecollection.org/pdf/b24924507

24. Georges Cuvier, Essay on the Theory of the Earth, Fifth edition (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1827) from Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes, ou l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs espèces d'animaux que les révolutions du globe paroissent avoir détruites (1812). At: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/62918/62918-h/62918-h.htm

—, Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom Arranged according to its Organization (London: Wm. S. Orr & Company, 1840), translated from La Règne Animale (1817). At: https://archive.org/details/cuviersanimalkin00cuvi_0/page/n7/mode/2up

25. William Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and The Natural History of Man delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons (London: J. Callow, 1819). At: https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=9xYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=GBS.PA118&hl=en

26. Julian-Joseph Virey, Natural History of the Negro Race Extracted from the French,” by J. H. Guenebault (Charleston SC: D. J. Dowling, 1837), 2-56. Originally published as Histoire Naturelle du genre humaine (1824; orig pub. 1800). At: https://archive.org/details/naturalhistoryn00soemgoog/page/n126/mode/2up?q=VIREY

Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, “On the Comparative Anatomy of the Negro and European,” in Julien-Joseph Virey, Natural History of the Negro Race, 57-162.

Illustration: Duhamel, “the facial angle of species”, in Julien-Joseph Virey, Histoire naturelle du genre humaine, Paris, 1801, t. 2. https://journals.openedition.org/actesbranly/docannexe/image/262/img-7.jpg

Virey’s French version of 1801: https://archive.org/details/histoirenaturell01vire/mode/2up

Virey’s 1824 version: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ucm.5309030118&view=1up&seq=45&skin=2021

27. Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana; or, a Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America (Philadelphia: J. Dobson; London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1839). At: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/ext/dw/60411930R/PDF/60411930R.pdf

George Combe, “Phrenological Remarks on the relation between the natural Talents and Dispositions of Nations, and the Developments of their Brains” (1839); in Morton, Crania Americana, 269-91.

28. James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 4th edition, vol. 1 (London: Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper, 1841). At: https://books.google.co.za/books?id=oAZQAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

29. Josiah C. Nott, Two Lectures on the Natural History of the Caucasian and Negro Races (Mobile: Dade and Thompson, 1844). At: https://archive.org/details/NottJosiahClarkTwoLecturesOnTheNaturalHistoryOfTheCaucasianAndNegroRaces

J. C. Nott and Geo. R. Gliddon, Types of Mankind: or, Ethnological Researches, Based upon the Ancient Monuments, Paintings, Sculptures, and Crania of Races, and upon Their Natural, Geographical, Philological and Biblical History, 6th edition (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Co., 1854). At: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008234265&view=1up&seq=11

Louis Agassiz, “Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal world and Their Relation to the Different Types of Man” (1854); in Types of Mankind, lvii-lxxvii.

30. Charles Hamilton Smith, The Natural History of the Human Species: Its Typical Forms, Primeval distribution, Filiations, and Migrations (Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1859; orig. pub., 1851). At: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t9p272718&view=1up&seq=9&skin=2021

Samuel Kneeland, “Introduction,” The Natural History of the Human Species, 15-98.

31. Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Fragment (Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1850). At: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433082177506&view=1up&seq=13

32. Frederick Douglass, “The Claims of the Negro, Ethnologically Considered.” At: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/rbc/rbaapc/07900/07900.pdf

33. Arthur, Comte de Gobineau, The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, trans. Henry Hotz (1856; orig. pub. as Essai del l’inégalité des races humaines, 1853). At: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37115/37115-h/37115-h.htm#page201

34. Ernest Renan, The Future of Science: Ideas of 1848 (London: Chapman and Hall, 1891) (L’avenir de la science, pensées de 1848). At: https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Future_of_Science/FDPXAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1

—, Histoire Générale et Systeme Comparé des Langues Sémitiques. In Renan, Oeuvres Complètes, vol. VIII, 576-77. Trans. Jane Victoria Dagon, Ernest Renan and the Question of Race, Ph.D. thesis, Louisiana State University (1999). At: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7936&context=gradschool_disstheses

[Original at: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k64370643 ]

—, “Intellectual and Moral Reform” (La reforme intellectuelle et morale) (1871), in Renan, Oeuvres complètes, voll I, 323-407, 390-91. Trans. Jane Victoria Dagon, Ernest Renan and the Question of Race, Ph.D. thesis, Louisiana State University (1999). At: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7936&context=gradschool_disstheses

35. James McCune Smith, “On the Fourteenth Query of Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia (1859). At: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106005410862&view=1up&seq=241&q1=m%27cune

36. Alfred Russel Wallace, “The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of ‘Natural Selection’” (1864), in Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, second ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1871), 303-31. Digital version at: https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=dlps_fac_arw

37. Thomas Henry Huxley, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature, (New York: Appleton, 1863). At: https://www.google.com/books/edition/Evidence_as_to_Man_s_Place_in_Nature/JjQNBAjnR7oC?hl=en&gbpv=1

—, “Emancipation — Black and White” in Collected Essays, vol. III, Science and Education (New York: Appleton, 1865), 66-75. At: http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE3/B&W.html

38. James Hunt, “On the Negro’s Place in Nature” (London: Trübner and Co., 1863). At: https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbaapc.14300/?sp=6&st=text. The text in this book is from a reissue, with slight modifications, published as “The Negro’s Place in Nature,” Anti-Abolition Tracts #4 (New York: Van Evrie, Horton & Company, 1866) at: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/vh7kqzqt/items?canvas=4.

39. Carl Vogt, Lectures on Man: His Place in Creation, and in the History of the Earth (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1864). At: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/brq5hy87/items

40. Paul Broca, “On the Phenomenon of Hybridity in the Genus Homo” (published for the Anthropological Society, London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1864). Orig. pub. as “Des phénomènes d’hybridité dans le genre humain,” Journal de la physiologie de l’homme et des animaux 3 (1859-60): 392-439. At: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/47137/47137-h/47137-h.htm.

41. Ernst Haeckel, The History of Creation: or the Development of the Earth and its Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes, trans. E. Ray Lankester, vol. II of II (London: D. Appleton & Co., 1880; orig. pub., 1868). At: https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/40473/pg40473-images.html

42. Jules Michelet, “Preface to The History of France (1869),” trans., Edward K. Kaplan, in Flora Kimmich, Lionel Gossman, Edward K. Kaplan, eds., On History (Open Book Publishers, 2013), 139-62. At: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vjtg8.9

43. Frances Galton, “The Comparative Worth of Different Races” (1869), Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences (London and New York: Macmillan & Co., 1892), 336-50. At: https://galton.org/books/hereditary-genius/text/pdf/galton-1869-genius-v3.pdf .

44. Jean-Louis-Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau, The Human Species (London: Kegan Paul & Co.,1879; orig. pub., 1877). At: https://archive.org/details/humanspecies01quat

45. Anténor Firmin, The Equality of Human Races, trans. Asselin Charles (New York: Garland, 2000). Orig. pub., L’égalité des races humaines (anthropologie positive) (Paris: Librairie Cotillon, 1885). Introduction by Carolyn Fleuhr-Lobban.

46. Paul Topinard, “On ‘Race’ in Anthropology” (De la race en anthropologie), Congrés international d/archeologie préhistorique et d’anthropologie, 11th session, Moscow, 1892, I: 161-70, in Earl W. Count, ed., This is Race: An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950), 171-77.

47. Rudolf Virchow, “Heredity and the Formation of Races,” in Earl W. Count, ed., This is Race: An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950), 178-93; originally “Rassenbildung und Erblichkeit,” in Festschrift für Adolf Bastian (Berlin, 1896), 1-43.

48. Joseph Deniker, The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography (Les races et les peoples de la terre) (Paris, 1900; London: Walter Scott, Limited, 1900). At: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46848/46848-h/46848-h.htm

William Z. Ripley, “Deniker’s Classification of the Races of Europe.” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 28, no. 1/2 (1899): 166–73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2842946?origin=crossref

Image Sources (Author Portraits)

  1. Franćois Bernier, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1800. Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bernier-Ingres-1800.jpg
  2. Voltaire, sculpture by Jean-Antoine Houdon, Musée Fabre, Montpellier, source: Gijsbert van der Wal, https://yarbs.net/life-mask-reconstructions/voltaire-life-mask-reconstruction.html
  3. John Mitchell (no portrait).
  4. Baron de la Brède et de Montesquieu, anonymous: http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/baron-de-la-brede-et-de-montesquieu.html
  5. Buffon. Lithograph by Z. Belliard, Wikimedia Commons: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/f9tpgy69.
  6. David Hume, portrait by Allan Ramsay, National Gallery, Wikimedia Commons, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/60610/david-hume-1711-1776-historian-and-philosopher-1754
  7. Linnaeus, portrait by Mrs. Anderson after Per Krafft the Elder, Collection of the Herbarium, Library, Art & Archives, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/carl-linnaeus-17071778-later-carl-von-linne-87598
  8. Immanuel Kant, portrait attributed to Jean-Marc Nattier, 1790: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg.
  9. Petrus Camper, portrait by Marie-Anne Collot, c. 1790: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Petrus-Camper-%28professor%29.jpg
  10. Henry Home, Lord Kames, portrait by David Martin, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Home,_Lord_Kames_by_David_Martin.jpg
  11. Oliver Goldsmith, from page 293 of volume 1 of The Cabinet of Irish Literature: selections from the works of the chief poets, orators, and prose writers of Ireland. [Vol. 1-3.] With biographical sketches and literary notices by C. A. Read., by READ, Charles Anderton, (Vol. 4. by T. P. O'Connor.). Wikimedia Commons. Original held and digitised by the British Library, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:READ%281879%29_p1.293_OLIVER_GOLDSMITH.jpg
  12. Edward Long, engraving by William Sharp after John Opie, 1796, National Portrait Gallery, London: https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw197119/Edward-Long
  13. John Hunter, steel engraving by G. H. Adcock after Sir Joshua Reynolds. National Portrait Gallery, London: https://www.posterazzi.com/john-hunter-1728-to-1793-scottish-surgeon-founder-of-pathological-anatomy-in-england-engraved-by-g-h-adcock-after-sir-joshua-reynolds-from-the-book-national-portrait-gallery-volume-v-published-c-1835-posterprint-item-vardpi1861389/.
  14. Thomas Jefferson, portrait by Charles Wilson Peale. Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ThomasJeffersonStateRoomPortrait.jpg
  15. Soames Jenyns, portrait 1776: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soame_Jenyns
  16. Johann Gottfried von Herder, portrait by Anton Graff, 1785, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Johann_Gottfried_Herder_2.jpg
  17. John Pinkerton, Public Domain: No known copyright: https://fina.oeaw.ac.at/wiki/index.php/John_Pinkerton
  18. Samuel Stanhope Smith, portrait by Charles B. Lawrence, Princeton University Art Museum, Wikimedia Commons: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Stanhope_Smith#/media/File:Lawrence,_Charles_B.,_Samuel_Stanhope_Smith_(1750%E2%80%931819),_Class_of_1769,_President_(1795%E2%80%931812).jpg
  19. Christoph Meiners, portrait by Johann Heinrich Tischbein the Younger, 1772. Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Christoph_Meiners#/media/File:Christoph_Meiners_portrait_by_Johann_Heinrich_Tischbein_the_Younger_(c._1772).jpg
  20. Sir William Jones, engraving by J. Posselwhite, New York Public Library Digital Collections, Citation/reference: EM3265: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47db-19e6-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99
  21. Benjamin Rush, portrait by Charles Wilson Peale, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale.jpg
  22. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, engraving by Ludwig Emil Grimm: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach
  23. Charles White, portrait by William Ward, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_White._Mezzotint_by_W._Ward_after_J._Allen._Wellcome_V0006274.jpg
  24. Georges Cuvier, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg
  25. William Lawrence, engraving by Charles Turner, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William_Lawrence.jpg
  26. Julien-Joseph Virey, Wikipedia, engraving, Bourgeon, Wikimedia Commons, from http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/parmentier/img/gd/50011.jpg. Samuel Thomas Soemmering, portrait, Wellcome Gallery Collections; Wikimedia Commons, https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/V0005532.html
  27. Samuel George Morton, engraving on frontispiece to Types of Mankind https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morton-Frontispiece-Types-of-Mankind.jpg. George Combe, from The life of George Combe, author of ‘The constitution of man’ / by Charles Gibbon (London: Macmillan and Co., 1878), 2 vols. PH:V.77, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:George_Combe .
  28. James Cowles Prichard, print, British Museum, anonymous lithograph, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:James_Cowles_Prichard.jpg
  29. Josiah C. Nott, Mobile Press-Register, https://www.al.com/live/2013/06/mobile_press-register_200th_an_4.html. George R. Gliddon, Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France: http://www.luminous-lint.com/__phv_app.php?/p/Mathew__Brady/. Louis Agassiz, Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Louis_Agassiz,_zoologist_and_geologist.jpg
  30. Charles Hamilton Smith, portrait by Edward Opie, The Box, Plymouth, https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/lieutenant-colonel-charles-hamilton-smith-17761859-147907. Samuel Kneeland, https://www.yosemite.ca.us/library/wonders_of_the_yosemite_valley/
  31. Robert Knox, lithograph, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Knox._Lithograph._Wellcome_L0001664.jpg
  32. Frederick Douglass, New York Historical Society, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Douglas_NYHS_c1866.jpg
  33. Arthur, comte de Gobineau, portrait by Comtesse de la Tour, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arthur_de_Gobineau.jpg
  34. Ernest Renan, Wikimedia Commons, from The life of Ernest Renan (1897): https://archive.org/stream/lifeofernestrena00robiuoft#page/n7/mode/2up
  35. James McCune Smith, engraving by Patrick H. Reason, New York Historical Society, Wikimedia Commons, https://www.medelita.com/blog/honoring-pioneer-james-mccune-smith-md
  36. Alfred Russel Wallace, photograph by George W. Beccaloni, https://www.nhm.ac.uk/natureplus/community/wallace100/blog@start=60.html
  37. Thomas Henry Huxley, lithograph, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_Henry_Huxley_Litho.jpg
  38. James Hunt, https://historywiki.therai.org.uk/index.php?title=File:Hunt,_James.jpg.
  39. Carl Vogt, photograph, New York Public Digital Library, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carl_Vogt_NYPL_1158509_%28cropped%29.jpg
  40. Paul Broca, Wellcome Library, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Paul_Broca
  41. Ernst Haeckel, 1860, Wikimedia Commons, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/young-portrait-of-the-german-biologist-ernst-heinrich-news-photo/141551170
  42. Jules Michelet, Wikimedia Commons, , https://gallica.bnf.fr/, ident., btv1b84386399
  43. Francis Galton, Wikimedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Francis_Galton#/media/File:Sir_Francis_Galton,_1890s.jpg
  44. Jean-Louis-Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quatrefages_BNF_Gallica.jpg
  45. Anténor Firmin, Wikimedia Commons, Île en île / lehman.cuny.
  46. Paul Topinard, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Topinard.png
  47. Rudolf Virchow, Wikimedia Commons, http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B25666
  48. Joseph Deniker, BNF Gallica, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8450883g.item. William Z. Ripley, from https://www.irwincollier.com/harvard-short-bibliography-of-strikes-and-boycotts-for-serious-minded-students-ripley-1910/